Herb Descriptions:  A - C
(In alphabetical order, scroll down the page)

      Alfalfa:  Common name: Lucerne.  Botanical name: Medicago sativa.  Alfalfa is a member of the pea family and is native to western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region. Alfalfa sprouts have become a popular food. Alfalfa herbal supplements primarily use the dried leaves of the plant. The heat-treated seeds of the plant have also been used.

Alfalfa has been used in connection with the high cholesterol, menopause and poor appetite.

Many years ago, traditional Chinese physicians used young alfalfa leaves to treat disorders of the digestive tract.  Similarly, the Ayurvedic physicians of India prescribed the leaves and flowering tops for poor digestion. Alfalfa was also considered therapeutic for water retention and arthritis. North American Indians recommended alfalfa to treat jaundice and to encourage blood clotting.

Although conspicuously absent from many classic textbooks on herbal medicine, alfalfa did find a home in the texts of the Eclectic physicians (19th-century physicians in the United States who used herbal therapies) as a tonic for indigestion, dyspepsia, anemia, loss of appetite, and poor assimilation of nutrients.  These physicians also recommended the alfalfa plant to stimulate lactation in nursing mothers, and the seeds were made into a poultice for the treatment of boils and insect bites.

Active constituents:  While the medicinal benefits of alfalfa are poorly understood, the constituents in alfalfa have been extensively studied. The leaves contain approximately 2–3% saponins.  Animal studies suggest that these constituents block absorption of cholesterol and prevent the formation of atherosclerotic plaques.  One small human trial found that 120 grams per day of heat-treated alfalfa seeds for eight weeks led to a modest reduction in cholesterol. However, consuming the large amounts of alfalfa seeds (80–120 grams per day) needed to supply high amounts of these saponins may potentially cause damage to red blood cells in the body.  Herbalists also claim that alfalfa may be helpful for people with diabetes. But while high amounts of a water extract of the leaves led to increased insulin release in animal studies, there is no evidence that alfalfa would be useful for the treatment of diabetes in humans.

Alfalfa leaves also contain flavones, isoflavones, sterols, and coumarin derivatives. The isoflavones are thought to be responsible for the estrogen-like effects seen in animal studies. Although this has not been confirmed with human trials, alfalfa is sometimes used to treat menopause symptoms.

Alfalfa contains protein and vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B6, vitamin C, vitamin E, and vitamin K. Nutrient analysis demonstrates the presence of calcium, potassium, iron, and zinc.

Dried alfalfa leaf is available as a bulk herb, and in tablets or capsules. It is also available in liquid extracts. No therapeutic amount of alfalfa has been established for humans. Some herbalists recommend 500–1,000 mg of the dried leaf per day or 1–2 ml of tincture three times per day.

Use of the dried leaves of alfalfa in the amounts listed above is usually safe. There have been isolated reports of people who are allergic to alfalfa. Ingestion of very large amounts (the equivalent of several servings) of the seed and/or sprouts has been linked to the onset of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in animal studies.  It has also been linked to the reactivation of SLE in people consuming alfalfa tablets.  SLE is an autoimmune illness characterized by inflamed joints and a high risk of damage to kidneys and other organs. The chemical responsible for this effect is believed to be canavanine. At the time of writing, there were no well-known drug interactions with alfalfa.

      Agrimony:  (Vaccinium myrtillus)  aka: Bilberry, Huckleberry, Whortleberry, to name a few.  Used by the Kashaya Pomo in Northern California for diabetes and eye disorders. Mentioned in many older texts in Buryatia, Europe, China as an herb valuable for it's powerful ability to correct many diseases of the digestive system, circulatory system and eyes.

Agrimony contains tanin and a volatile, essential oil. The English use it to make a delicious "spring" or "diet" drink for purifying the blood. It is considered an especially useful tonic for aiding recovery from winter colds and fevers. As agrimony also posseses an astringent action, it is frequently used as an herbal mouthwash and gargle ingredient, and externally in the form of a lotion to minor sores and ulcers. It has also been recommended, as a strong decoction, to cure sores, blemishes, and pimples.

Agrimony tea is a gentle blood purifier.  Infuse 1 teaspoon dried agrimony root, leaves, or flowers in cup of boiling water for 15 minutes. Strain and flavor with honey and a little licorice root if desired. Take up to 1 cup per day.

See also Bilberry.

      Aloe:  There are nearly five hundred species of aloe, a type of plant that originated in southern Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope.  The use of aloe goes back in history 5,500 years. There are pictures of aloe plants on some Egyptian temples. The Greek physician Dioscorides wrote of its benefits to heal wounds and treat hemorrhoids.

Aloes now grow throughout Africa, around the Mediterranean and the Caribbean, and in many countries in South America.

The thick, juicy leaves contain two distinct products that are used medicinally and that need to be distinguished to avoid confusion.  One is the thin clear gel or mucilage that oozes from the middle of a broken leaf.  The other is a bitter latex, referred to as aloe vera juice, derived from the cells just under the surface of the leaf. Their compositions and uses differ.  The active ingredient in the gel is mucopolysaccharides.  The latex provides anthraquinone derivatives, mostly in the form of aloins, with smaller amounts of hydroxyaloins, aloe-emodin, and aloeresins.

The gel is used topically on wounds and burns to help them heal more rapidly. Taken internally, it is considered a general tonic. Unfortunately, separation of the gel from the latex for commercial preparations is often incomplete, and the gel may end up with some laxative action due to inadvertent inclusion of latex.  It has been recommended for burns due to radiation, but like most of its uses this one is considered incompletely proved and controversial.  There is no harm in applying fresh gel from a broken leaf to a minor cut or burn, and many people find it soothing. In the test tube, gels from some species of aloe have antibacterial activity. A. vera, however, does not appear to kill many microbes.

The latex of Aloe is a powerful laxative that irritates the intestine. We do not recommend using this product.

Special Precautions:   Pregnant women must avoid aloe latex; use has been known to trigger abortion or premature birth.  Nursing mothers should take this laxative only under medical supervision. Children must not take aloe latex.  Women who are menstruating should not use aloe latex, as it may increase blood flow.  Aloe latex may be very dangerous when there is an intestinal blockage and must be avoided in such cases. Aloe latex is not appropriate for people with intestinal inflammation such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease, and it should not be taken by people with inflamed hemorrhoids.  People with kidney problems should avoid aloe latex.  The most serious difficulties encountered with aloe latex occur at higher than recommended doses or when used for more than a few days.  This laxative herb causes the loss of potassium and other minerals, which over time can result in a loss of muscle tone of the intestine and diminished effectiveness. Frequent use may cause irreversible damage.  Large doses of aloe have caused bloody diarrhea, kidney damage, and even death.  The urine may take on a reddish color after taking aloe latex. This color is harmless; however, with the possibility of kidney damage from large doses or prolonged use, any persistent color in the urine may call for medical diagnosis. 

Possible Interactions: Low potassium levels can be dangerous in a person taking a heart drug like Lanoxin.  Aloe latex might also be dangerous for anyone taking a diuretic that depletes the body of potassium (Lasix, HCTZ, etc.) because of the additive effect. It should be avoided in such situations.  Aloe latex could reduce the absorption of any pill taken around the same time because it cuts intestinal transit time so drastically.

      Angelica:  Many tales surround this herb.  Tales of its angelic nature and its pagan associations, of its healing powers and its wonderful taste, and of its potential hazards.  This herb is said to bloom every year on May 8th, the feast day of St Michael the Archangel.  Thus, its reputation as an angelic plant with the magical powers of healing and protection.  Angelica was thought to ward off evil spirits and witches.  Its juices were drunk to ward off spells and poisons.

Magical qualities or not, its many porperties and uses are real.  The medicinal use today centers on the treatment of digestive and bronchial problems.  A decoction of the root can treat indigestions, gastritis, imflammation of the intestines and flatulence. The stem can be steamed and eaten like asparagus, the leaves brewed into a fine tea that aids digestion, the oil of the root can be added to a bath for relaxation.  Angelica is used for loss of appetite, to promote circulation and to warm the body (particularly for those who often have chilly hands and feet).  Applied externally, it can ease rheuatic pains, stomach cramps and muscle spasms.

Angelica is a plant, not a tree, that can grow as high as eight feet.  European angelica is a biennial or perennial herb native to northern and eastern Europe and parts of Asia.  Angelica has been used for centuries in European medicine as an expectorant for bronchial illnesses, colds and coughs, and also as a digestive aid for stomach disorders. By the fifteenth century it was in popular use. In the English herbal entitled Paradisus Terrestris, published in 1629 C.E. by John Parkinson, angelica was reported to be one of the most important medicinal herbs of that time.

Angelica root consists of the dried root and rhizome of A. archangelica L. The root and rhizome contain essential oil, coumarin, and coumarin derivatives. Some of its early uses are at least partially supported by in vitro studies of angelica's active coumarin and furanocoumarin constituents. One of these, angelicin, relaxes smooth muscles in vitro, including those in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Angelica also relaxes tracheal and vascular smooth muscles in vitro. European angelica may also increase uterine contractions, similar to the effects shown by Chinese angelica, A. sinensis (dong quai). In India, it is used to treat anorexia nervosa and flatulent dyspepsia.

Side Effects:  The furanocoumarins present in angelica root sensitize the skin to light. Subsequent exposure to UV radiation can lead to inflammation of the skin. During treatment with the drug or its preparations, prolonged sun-bathing and exposure to intense UV radiation should be avoided. Use During Pregnancy and Lactation is not recommended during pregnancy. 

      Arnica:  The soothing qualities of arnica have been used for a long time in Europe and North America.  An arnica ointment or salve relieves the pain and reduces inflammation of sprains and bruises.  A tincture is used to treat wounds.  Studies have found it contains helenalin and dihydrohelenalin which produces anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects.  To make a linament, heat one ounce of Arnica flowers in one ounce of lard or oil for several hours.  Strain the mixture and let cool.

Internal use of arnica is not recommended.  Cardiac toxicity has been demonstrated, and arnica's effects on respiration and the uterus require further study. Oral administration of arnica is often accompanied by severe side effects. Contemporary studies demonstrate in vitro antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, positive inotropic, respiratory-stimulating, and uterine activities. Experimental trials suggest further potential uses.  The Commission E has also approved the external use of arnica flower for inflammation of the oral and throat region, furunculosis, inflammation caused by insect bites, and superficial phlebitis.

Arnica grows up to two feet in the mountainous regions of Europe and western North America.  It is a true perennial herb with round, hairy stems ending in one to three flower stalks.  The flowers are yellow-orange and daisy-like.  In Europe it is cultivated to fill the demand for the estimated three hundred arnica-containing tinctures, ointments, and homeopathic remedies manufactured for the German market. Dried orange-yellow flower heads supply a therapeutic volatile oil, that contains fatty acids, aromatic terpenes, flavonoids, tannins, as well as the sesquiterpenes of the helenalin type.

Arnica is a common homeopathic remedy. Unless otherwise prescribed: Infusion: 2 g of herb per 100 ml of water. Tincture: For cataplasm: 3–10 times dilution. For mouth rinses: 10 times dilution. As ointment: Not more than 20–25% tincture. "Arnica oil": Extract of 1 part herb and 5 parts fatty oil. Ointments with not more than 15% "arnica oil."

Special Precautions:  Prolonged treatment of damaged skin may cause dermatitis in some individuals.  If this occurs, discontinue use.

      Ashwagandha:  Botanical name: Withania somniferum.  Ashwagandha, which belongs to the pepper family, is found in India and Africa. The roots of ashwagandha are used medicinally.

Ashwagandha has been used in connection with Immune function, osteoarthritis and stress.
 
The health applications for ashwagandha in traditional Indian and Ayurvedic medicine are extensive. Of particular note is its use against tumors, inflammation (including arthritis), and a wide range of infectious diseases.  The shoots and seeds are also used as food and to thicken milk in India. Traditional uses of ashwagandha among tribal peoples in Africa include fevers and inflammatory conditions.  Ashwagandha is frequently a constituent of Ayurvedic formulas, including a relatively common one known as shilajit.

Active constituents: The constituents believed to be active in ashwagandha have been extensively studied.  Compounds known as withanolides are believed to account for the multiple medicinal applications of ashwagandha.  These molecules are steroidal and bear a resemblance, both in their action and appearance, to the active constituents of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng) known as ginsenosides. Indeed, ashwagandha has been called “Indian ginseng” by some. Ashwagandha and its withanolides have been extensively researched in a variety of animal studies examining effects on immune function, inflammation, and even cancer. Ashwagandha stimulates the activation of immune system cells, such as lymphocytes.  It has also been shown to inhibit inflammation and improve memory in animal experiments.  Taken together, these actions may support the traditional reputation of ashwagandha as a tonic or adaptogen - an herb with multiple, nonspecific actions that counteract the effects of stress and generally promote wellness.

Some experts recommend 3–6 grams of the dried root, taken each day in capsule or tea form.  To prepare a tea, 3/4–1 1/4 teaspoons (3–6 grams) of ashwagandha root are boiled for 15 minutes and cooled; 3 cups (750 ml) may be drunk daily. Alternatively, tincture 1/2–3/4 teaspoon (2–4 ml) three times per day, is sometimes recommended.

No significant side effects have been reported with ashwagandha. The herb has been used safely by children in India. Its safety during pregnancy and breastfeeding is unknown.  At the time of writing, there were no well-known drug interactions with ashwagandha.

      Asparagus Root:  Long treasured by herbalists in China and India, it is gaining popularity in the western world as well.  In traditional Chinese medicine, it is known as a "yin" tonic.  Small doses taken regularly are believed to enhance feelings of love and compassion.  In India, Aspargus root is known as "Shatavari" and is taken by women as a hormonal tonic. 

Asparagus root contains steroidal glycosides, which may account for its reputation for increasing positive feelings such as love, patience and compassion. 

In Western medicine, it is used for its diruretic qualities.  It is a urinary-tract soother and tonic.  It is an effective treatment for urinary tract disorders and kidney stones.  It also is a nutritive tonic that relieves some of the symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome, general exhaustion, tuberculosis and even AIDS.  It is a nutritive tonic for the lungs.  Asparagus root is a restorative tonic for the female reproductive system.  It may enhance fertility, relieve menstrual cramps and increase the flow of breast milk in women.  Other benefits may include relieving the painful swelling associated with rheumatism, bloating and soothing dryness of the throat.

Unless otherwise prescribed: 45–60 g per day of cut rhizome. Infusion: 45–60 g of cut herb in 150 ml water. Fluidextract 1:1 (g/ml): 45–60 ml. Tincture 1:5 (g/ml): 225–300 ml.

      Astragalus:  A Chinese immune system booster, heals burns and abscesses, offsets adverse effects of cancer therapy, protects the heart against viral damage. Used as a tonic in traditional Chinese medicine. It is a member of the legume, or bean, family. It has sweet-tasting roots (the parts used medicinally).

Researchers in the United States and China have begun to believe that Astragalus may very well live up to its 2,000-year-old reputation as an immune system booster.  It is one of the most commonly used herbs in all of Chinese medicine to build up the vital energy, or qi (pronounced "Chee"),  It's used to promote urination, speed healing of burns and abscesses and generally bolster the body's resistance to disease.  Chinese healers also use astragalus to treat the common cold, arthritis, weakness, diarrhea, asthma and nervousness. Sometimes they pan-roast the roots in honey or use them as an ingredient in soup.  In Chinese hospitals, astragalus is used to help people with cancer recover from the immune system wipeout caused by chemotherapy.

Astragalus is available at many health food stores in the form of capsules, teas and tinctures. The herb has not been known to cause any dangerous side effects, but some people have reported loose stools or abdominal bloating. If you experience any unpleasant symptoms, cut back your dose or discontinue use.

There are many flowering plants in the astragalus family, including native American species that are toxic when eaten by cattle. (Ranchers call the plant locoweed because of its effect on their herds' behavior.) The particular herb known as astragalus in Chinese medicine is a species called Astragalus membranaceus.

      Bee Balm:  These members of the mint family form bushy, leafy clumps that grow 11/2- to 4-feet tall. The oval, dark green leaves have toothed edges, and have a strong scent of mint with overtones of other herbs, some rose-flavored, some lemony. Like all mints, stems are distinctly four-sided but they Bee Balms are not as invasive in the garden. In summer and fall, tight clusters of long, tubular, and nectar-rich flowers appear atop stems. Depending upon the variety, flowers are pink, white, blue, violet, purple, or scarlet.

Knowledge of bee balm's virtues stretches back to Native Americans.  Early European settlers learned how to treat colds with a tea made of equal amounts of spotted horsemint (M. punctata) and boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum). In fact, from 1820 to 1882, spotted horsemint was listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, the 19th-century equivalent of today's Physician's Desk Reference. Catawba Indians used bee balm tea to treat backaches. Cherokees combined the leaves and flowering tops of M. fistulosa (wild bergamot) and M. didyma to treat colds, stomach complaints, colic and gas, measles, flu, and heart troubles. Many tribes made a poultice of the leaves to treat headaches.

Current research reinforces the traditional wisdom. Dr. James Duke, retired United States Department of Agriculture ethnobotanist, notes that bee balms, like several of their mint family relatives, are rich in antioxidants (nutrients that protect human cells from damage caused by highly reactive and destructive "free radicals") and thymol (a chemical compound used to treat bacteria, fungus, and intestinal worms, and a key ingredient of Listerine mouthwash and similar antiseptic preparations). Duke recommends drinking a cup of bee balm tea each day to ensure a healthful supply of antioxidants.

Make bee balm tea by adding 1/2 cup of fresh (or 1/4 cup of dried) bee balm leaves and flowers to a tea bag or tea ball. Pour in boiling water and allow to steep for 4 to 5 minutes. Flavor to taste with honey.

Note: You can also use leaves and flowers of bee balm to flavor fruit punch. Use the fresh flowers to add color to salads, or use either dried flowers or leaves to flavor turkey, chicken, or pork.

      Bilberry:  For centuries Bilberry/Huckleberry has been used as a circulatory enhancer and diabetic aid. The active constituents of Bilberry are ericolin, arbutin, beta-amyrin, nonacosane, anthocyanosides, notably myrtocyan. Anthocyanosides are a type of bioflavonoid which causes the deep blue-red color of many berries. These anthocyanosides protect the vascular system by strengthening the capillary walls. This produces many of the secondary benefits such as lowering of blood pressure, reduction of clots, reducing varicosities and bruising, reversing poor blood supply and improving blood supply specifically to the nervous system. Bilberry is used in Europe before surgery to prevent excessive bleeding and hemorrhaging. A recent German medical journal reports Bilberry effective in reducing execcesive bleeding by 71%. Bilberry also thins the blood by inhibiting the platelets from adhesion to themselves improving capillary strength, and reducing capillary leakage.  This results in improved blood flow and dramatically reduces clotting related health risks.

During World War II RAF pilots were forced to fly at night in order to accomplish any deep assault on Germany. Many pilots and their crew members complained of the poor visibility and its effects on their performance. It was just simply very difficult to work in the dark. One of the families of a flight leader had an older woman who suggested using Bilberry jam as an aid to night vision. Researchers found fifty years later what the RAF already knew, Bilberry's powerful effects increased retinal purple (RHODOPSIN) by dramatic amounts in just twenty minutes . Further research showed that the RAF pilots who survived and continued consuming the jam or other Bilberry products had several remarkable aspects to their health. The most noticeable was perfect vision both near and far as well as a complete absence of eye disorders throughout their lives. The group was absent of any circulatory or digestive disorders in their medical histories.

Another study showed Bilberry to improve eyesight and increase occular blood supply in 75% of patients. It improved nearsightedness after 5 months of regular use while an 83% improvement in visual acuity was recorded after only 15 days. One of the more encouraging statistics regarding Bilberry's visual enhancing properties is that over 80% of the people taking Bilberry for the first time improved on their visual acuity exam and passed a night vision test within 3 minutes of ingestion. Long term improvements took an average of 6 weeks with regular doses.

The anthocyanosides of Bilberry which may vary in amounts from one variety to another have been proven to be one of the more powerful antioxidants. Ranked higher in activity than vitamins E and C by Dr. Pierre Braquet, a well known phyto researcheranthocyanosides prevent free radical damage to collagen and collagenous tissue, making it one of the most important agents to treat diseases such as osteoarthritis, gout, and periodontal diseases.

Vaccinium Myrtillus' anthocyanosides proved consistently to increase the acetylcholine-induced relaxation of isolated coronary arteries. This is a promising update to the already impressive list of benefits of Bilberry.

Another quality of Bilberry is the effect it has on the digestive system most notably, the stomach. Bilberry increases the secretion of the mucuous layer that protects the stomach from damage. A recent study showed Bilberry to inhibit ulcers in 63% of patients at risk 

One of the most beneficial aspects to Bilberry's circulatory effects is the fact that the most affected are the areas which are usually the last to be improved, scalp, eyes, dental and peripheral areas such as extremities. This is one of the dual actions that diabetes patients value in Bilberry; it's proven action on the circulatory system which complicates diabetes and the modification of blood sugar levels in type I and type II diabetes.

The fresh or dried berries are useful for a feverish liver and are useful as an adjunct in stomach conditions. In Russia the berries are called affectionately by the name "Chernika" (LITTLE black ones) and are used with the leaves in tinctures [NASTOIKA] for gastric colitis and other digestive problems. It has a legendary reputation as aid to an diabetics.

      Black Cohosh:  This plant, native to North American forests, has a number of popular names: bugbane, black snakeroot, rattleroot, and squaw root. It sends up graceful tall spires of white flowers; the black in its common name refers to the root or rhizome, as does cohosh, Algonquian for "rough."

Native Americans prized black cohosh and used it for a variety of purposes. The settlers learned about it from the Indians, but by the middle of the nineteenth century it was renowned as being helpful for women's problems, and other uses were more or less forgotten.

Black cohosh was a key ingredient in an immensely popular patent medicine, Lydia E. Pinkham's Vegetable Compound.  Black cohosh has been used for menopausal symptoms in recent years. The portion of the plant used is underground: the rhizome and roots. The main ingredients are triterpene glycosides, especially actein, related compounds, and cimigoside. Black cohosh also contains tannins, fatty acids, and phytosterols. In a laboratory test of estrogenic activity, black cohosh extract did not bind to estrogen receptors.

In Europe, black cohosh is used for symptoms such as hot flashes, headaches, psychological difficulties, and weight gain associated with menopause. It is also reputed to be helpful for premenstrual problems and painful menstrual cramps.

American Indians treated sore throats and rheumatism with this herb, but these uses have not been scrutinized by modern medical studies.

Some of the evidence on the clinical effect of black cohosh is impressive. In one study, sixty women under forty years of age who had undergone hysterectomy were divided into groups. One group got conjugated estrogen (available in the United States under the brand name Premarin), one was given estriol (another form of estrogen), a third received an estrogen-gestagen sequence, and the fourth group of women took a black cohosh extract.

Bothersome symptoms such as hot flashes disappeared slowly, over the course of four weeks, and at that point there was no difference in response among the four groups. This suggests that black cohosh may be as good at treating symptoms of menopause as are conventional estrogen treatments.

Beginning research indicates that black cohosh can lower cholesterol and strengthen bone, as estrogen does. 

The usual daily dose is equivalent to 40 mg of the herb. It may take four weeks to get the maximum benefit; the herb should not be taken for more than six months until there is more information available on long-term effects.

Special Precautions :  Although black cohosh is not mutagenic or carcinogenic and does not cause birth defects in animals, authorities caution pregnant women not to use it. There is a report of premature birth associated with the herb and worries that it could trigger miscarriage.

      Borage:  In days of old, borage was sometimes added to a drink and given to prospective husbands to give them the courage to propose marriage and it's reputation for invoking courage goes back a long way.  It was also used to "cheer the heart and lift the depressed spirits"... "for the comfort of the heart, to drive away sorrow and increase the joy of the minde".  A Modern Herbal Now that's a heck of a reputation!

Herbalists today believe borage to be a diuretic, demulcent and emollient.  Infusions and decoctions are taken to relieve fevers, bronchitis, diarrhea and other ailments.  It cleanses the blood, promotes perspiration and is used in cases of arthritis and infections of the respiratory tract.  Poultices made from the leaves are cooling and soothing to external inflammations and swellings.  It also can be used cosmetically to refresh tired skin.

Borage contains tannin, mucilage, saponin, malic acid and potassium nitrate. These constituents account for the usefulness of the herb.

Borage is an annual, self seeding plant that has many leafy branches of hollow stems covered with stiff, white hairs.  It grows up to about 32" tall in a rounded shape and flowers with small blue, star-shaped corolla. It is native to Europe, Asia Minor and Africa.  It was naturalized in Great Brittain and is widely cultivated in North America.

The fresh herb has a cucumber-like fragrance. When steeped in water, it imparts a coolness to it and a faint cucumber flavour, and compounded with lemon and sugar in wine, and water, it makes a refreshing and restorative summer drink. The flowers are used in salads.

      Boswellia:  Common name: Salai guggal.  Botanical name: Boswellia serrata.  Boswellia is a moderate to large branching tree found in the dry hilly areas of India. When the tree trunk is tapped, a gummy oleoresin is exuded. A purified extract of this resin is used in modern herbal preparations.

Boswellia has been used in connection with asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis,
bursitis, and osteoarthritis.

In the ancient Ayurvedic medical texts of India, the gummy exudate from boswellia is grouped with other gum resins and referred to collectively as guggals. Historically, the guggals were recommended by Ayurvedic physicians for a variety of conditions, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, diarrhea, dysentery, pulmonary disease, and ringworm.

Active constituents: The gum oleoresin consists of essential oils, gum, and terpenoids. The terpenoid portion contains the boswellic acids that have been shown to be the active constituents in boswellia.  Today, extracts are typically standardized to contain 37.5–65% boswellic acids.

Studies have shown that boswellic acids have an anti-inflammatory action - much like the conventional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used for inflammatory conditions. Boswellia inhibits pro-inflammatory mediators in the body, such as leukotrienes.  As opposed to NSAIDs, long-term use of boswellia does not appear to cause irritation or ulceration of the stomach. One small, controlled, double-blind trial has shown that boswellia extract may be helpful for ulcerative colitis.

The standardized extract of the gum oleoresin of boswellia is recommended by many doctors. For rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis, 150 mg of boswellic acids are taken three times per day.  As an example, if an extract contains 37.5% boswellic acids, 400 mg of the extract would be taken three times daily. Treatment with boswellia generally lasts eight to twelve weeks. In the one clinical trial to date, people with ulcerative colitis used 550 mg of boswellia extract three times per day.

Are there any side effects or interactions? Boswellia is generally safe when used as directed. Rare side effects can include diarrhea, skin rash, and nausea. Any inflammatory joint condition should be closely monitored by a physician.  At the time of writing, there were no well-known drug interactions with boswellia.

      Burdock:  (Arctium lappa)  Native to Asia and Europe. The root is the primary source of most herbal preparations. The root becomes very soft with chewing and tastes sweet, with a mucilaginous texture.

In traditional herbal texts, burdock root is described as a “blood purifier” or “alterative,” and was believed to clear the bloodstream of toxins. It was used both internally and externally for eczema and psoriasis, as well as to treat painful joints and as a diuretic. In traditional Chinese medicine, burdock root in combination with other herbs is used to treat sore throats, tonsillitis, colds, and even measles. It is eaten as a vegetable in Japan and elsewhere.

Burdock root has recently become popular as part of a tea to treat cancer.  Burdock's use against cancer goes down through the centuries and has been used as a tumor treatment in Russia, China, India and the Americas. In the United States, it was an ingredient in the popular but highly controversial Hoxsey Cancer Formula, an alternative therapy marketed from the 1930s to the 1950s by ex-coal-miner Harry Hoxsey.

Some studies show anti-tumor or anti-mutation activity.  The National Cancer Institute became interested in burdock as part of its Designer Foods Program, an effort to use biotechnology to introduce cancer-preventive chemicals into common food crops.  Burdock's action is mild, but real. It has antibacterial and antiviral powers, and it reduces blood sugar, which helps prevent diabetes.  Burdock has value as a tonic, a subtle strengthener with cumulatively helpful effects.

Burdock root contains high amounts of inulin and mucilage. This may explain its soothing effects on the gastrointestinal tract. Bitter constituents in the root may also explain the traditional use of burdock to improve digestion. It also contains polyacetylenes, shown to have antimicrobial activity. Burdock root and fruit also have the ability to mildly lower blood sugar (hypoglycemic effect).

Herbalists generallly recommend 2–4 ml of burdock root tincture per day. For the dried root preparation in capsule form, the common amount to take is 1–2 grams three times per day. Many herbal preparations will combine burdock root with other alterative herbs, such as yellow dock, red clover, or cleavers.  Use of burdock root at the dosages listed above is generally safe.

To brew a pleasantly sweet-tasting tonic tea, boil one teaspoon of crushed, dried burdock root in three cups of water for 30 minutes. Drink up to three cups a day.

      Calendula:  (Calendula officinalis)  Language and mythology Also known as Pot marigold, the ancient Romans named this plant after they saw it bloom the first day or "calends" of every month. For centuries this plant was associated with the sun and believed to open with the sunrise and close with the sunset.  Description Calendula has erect angular branched stems with fine hairs. Flowers are rays in solitary terminal heads 1.5 to 4 inches across, yellow to orange in color and close up at night.

Calendula is a wound healer both internally and externally.  It can be used to treat gastritis and duodenal ulcers and it can break your fever or alleviate menstrual cramps.  Externally, it is a soothing remedy for burns and advances the healing process of sores and wounds.

Herbal uses are medicinal, culinary, decorative and cosmetic. Culinary: Flowers can be dried and ground and used as a good substitute for the color saffron provides in soups, stews, and poultry. Flowers can also be used for a culinary dye in butters and custards. Decorative: Dry flowers can be used in arrangements. Calendula also makes a pale yellow dye for fabrics. Cosmetic: Add to skin cream and also use in herbal bath mix to stimulate the body. Calendula is said to have some medicinal uses. Avoid use during pregnancy.

      Cascara Sagrada:  (Rhamnus purshiana)  Cascara Sagrada, Spanish for "sacred bark," comes from the American buckthorn tree native to the western coast of North America, from California to British Columbia, and as far inland as Montana. The Spanish priests of California may have learned about it from the Indians. In any event, this laxative was not widely adopted until the nineteenth century. A member of the same genus, R. frangula, is the European buckthorn tree, which had been used at least since 1650.

Cascara sagrada is one of the few herbs approved as an over-the-counter drug by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The portion of the plant used is the bark.  The main ingredients are anthraquinones.  Emodin and aloe-emodin have also been identified, along with a number of nonlaxative ingredients.

Cascara sagrada is used as a laxative. The anthraquinones stimulate the bowel, leading to evacuation after approximately six to ten hours.

This herb also provokes secretion of fluid and minerals into the large intestine and inhibits their reabsorption. It is suggested for situations in which a soft, easily passed stool is desirable, such as hemorrhoids or following rectal surgery.

Cascara sagrada is not appropriate for regular use and can cause problems such as dependence if it is used too often.

In addition, anthraquinones applied topically can protect skin from ultraviolet damage. 

Extracts of R. purshiana can inactivate herpes simplex virus, but this property has not been utilized medically.

The usual dose ranges from 20 mg to 70 mg daily of the anthraquinones. Products containing cascara sagrada should not be used for more than eight or ten days. Special Precautions:  Fresh bark can cause nausea and vomiting. The bark should be stored for at least a year or undergo heat processing to eliminate this problem. Pregnant women and nursing mothers should avoid cascara sagrada.  People with intestinal blockage, undiagnosed stomach pain, or symptoms that might indicate appendicitis must avoid laxatives such as cascara sagrada.  People with diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease, or intestinal ulcers must not use cascara sagrada.  Children younger than twelve with constipation should not be treated with cascara sagrada. 

Adverse Effects:  Abdominal cramps or diarrhea have been reported.  Chronic use of laxatives may lead to excessive loss of potassium or other electrolytes, which may be dangerous. In addition, anthraquinones can cause pigmentation of the large bowel.  A serious problem associated with chronic use, however, is that a person may become dependent on such a stimulant laxative and become unable to evacuate without it. This leads to problems that resemble ulcerative colitis.  Possible Interactions:  If cascara sagrada results in excessive potassium loss, heart rhythm irregularities may occur. This problem could be especially severe for people taking the heart drug Lanoxin.  It would be unwise to use cascara sagrada together with other herbal medicines that can cause potassium loss, such as aloe or licorice.

Medications such as hydrochlorothiazide, Lasix, Hygroton, Lozol, Bumex, and other potassium-wasting diuretics are probably incompatible with cascara sagrada, at least if it were used more than very occasionally. Cascara sagrada, like other strong laxatives, may reduce the absorption of other medicines taken orally.

      Cayenne:  The Capsicum genus originated in the New World but has been adopted into cuisines around the globe.  It contains as many as five species, with an untold number of variants, giving rise not only to the familiar green bell pepper, but also to paprika and a wide range of "hot peppers."  The flavors of these fruits have been much appreciated as spices for a very long time. Archaeologists have found remains of chilies in Mexican sites dating to 7000 B.C., and hot peppers played an important role in Aztec and Maya mythology.  The spiciness of edible peppers varies dramatically. The active ingredient in hot peppers, capsaicin, is so strong that people can detect it at a concentration as low as just one part in eleven million.

Most people have no trouble telling a mild pepper from a torrid one, but it was the medicinal use of cayenne that led to a way to compare them consistently.

When capsaicin is applied to the skin, it provokes a feeling of warmth and stimulates circulation in the area. As a consequence, these fruits are popular ingredients in liniments or rubs for arthritis.

Back in 1912 Wilbur Scoville, a pharmacologist working for Parke Davis, needed to standardize the pepper extract used to make Heet Liniment. He started with an organoleptic scale that required a panel of tasters to measure pepper hotness.  Using Scoville's scale, the capsaicin in a capsicum fruit is currently determined by high-tech machines rather than sensitive palates.  The "hotness" of peppers can range from 3,000 to 5,000 Scoville units for a jalapeño to about 50,000 Scoville units for a cayenne pepper. The very hottest, the habañeros, weigh in at 200,000 to 300,000 Scoville units.

The part of the plant used medicinally is the fruit. To flavor food, it may be used fresh or dried, but in herbal products it is generally dried.  Capsicum peppers are rich in nutrients, especially vitamin C and a range of carotenes. Not only beta-carotene (which is in abundant supply), but also such compounds as lutein, zeaxanthin, and others are found in these fruits.  But the ingredient that is responsible for most of the medicinal effects of cayenne is capsaicin, a pungent phenolic compound structurally similar to eugenol, a pain-relieving compound found in cloves and some other spices.

The principal use of both cayenne and of capsaicin derived from it is in topical ointments or creams. Such rubs have long been used to alleviate joint pain due to arthritis or the pain of muscle spasms.  When applied to the skin, capsicum results in a feeling of warmth, which may in some people become a perception of heat or even of burning.  With repeated applications, the capsaicin depletes substance P from nerves in the skin. Because substance P is apparently crucial to the transmission of pain sensation, its depletion results in diminished pain.  This action led to the development of over-the-counter creams containing 0.025 percent capsaicin to treat postherpetic neuralgia, diabetic , and trigeminal neuralgia. A higher-potency product, Zostrix-HP, with three times as much capsaicin, is also available.  Other painful conditions such as phantom limb syndrome, postmastectomy pain, and reflex sympathetic dystrophy are being studied to see if capsaicin can be helpful.

Preliminary research suggests that capsaicin may be helpful for the treatment of cluster headache, and a nasal spray has been tested at Johns Hopkins Asthma and Allergy Center for the treatment of chronic runny nose.

Traditionally, cayenne was recommended to stimulate the appetite and aid digestion.  Although people often think of chili peppers as irritating to the digestive tract, studies in rats have actually shown that pretreatment of the stomach lining with capsaicin solution (similar to Tabasco sauce) prevented damage from subsequent aspirin exposure.  It also prevented damage due to alcohol; this research was carried out in rats, and its applicability to humans is uncertain. Clinicians have established, however, that capsicum ingestion does not slow the healing of ulcers.  Preliminary studies suggest that chili peppers may help lower cholesterol or slow blood clotting. Further research is needed for confirmation of these uses.

Topical use of capsaicin in over-the-counter or herbal preparations requires repeated applications. Varro E. Tyler suggests four or five applications daily over a period of four weeks.  At least three days of applications are needed to determine the effect. There are no time limits on topical use of cayenne preparations unless you develop a reaction.  Semi-liquid preparations contain 0.02 to 0.05 percent capsaicin; liquids contain 0.005 to 0.01 percent capsaicin; and poultices may contain 10 to 40 g capsaicin and related compounds per square centimeter. Tolerance of cayenne for internal use varies with the individual. In capsules, the usually recommended dose ranges from 30 to 120 mg three times a day.

      Chamomile:  Chamomile has small, white daisylike flowers with a yellow center. The flower is the part of the herb that is used.  Two different plants carry the common name chamomile. One of them, M. chamomilla, is sometimes referred to as Hungarian, German, or genuine chamomile to distinguish it from C. nobile, Roman or English chamomile.  These very popular herbs are used almost interchangeably. However, they do differ.

The Greeks and Romans used this plant to encourage chastity and thought of it as capable of warding off evil.  Medieval monks were said to use the dried berries in their food to reduce sexual desire. As a result, it was also referred to as "monks' pepper."   Although Hypocrites used chaste tree for injuries and inflammation, several centuries later Dioscorides recommended it specifically for inflammation of the womb and also used it to encourage milk flow shortly after birth.  Current use of chasteberry is almost exclusively for disorders of the female reproductive system.  Oddly, the conditions for which it is most commonly recommended, premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and peri- or postmenopausal symptoms such as hot flashes, are associated with completely different hormone imbalances.

Studies have suggested that chaste tree can be used to treat conditions associated with excess prolactin. In a clinical trial of chasteberry for menstrual cycle abnormalities attributed to too much prolactin, the herb normalized both the cycle and the levels of prolactin and progesterone hormones.  It is also believed helpful for premenstrual breast tenderness, a condition linked to excess prolactin. Several uncontrolled studies in Germany have shown that chaste tree extracts can reduce symptoms associated with PMS.  It may be helpful for perimenopausal women with unusually short cycles or heavy bleeding.  Taking chaste berry shortly before bedtime may increase early morning melatonin secretion and improve sleep.  Chaste tree berry is slow acting. Two or three menstrual cycles, or a similar amount of time, may be needed to evaluate the effects. A standardized product from Germany is available in the United States under the brand name Femaprin.

      Chickweed:  The ubiquitous, small, green chickweed plant grows across the United States and originated in Europe. The leaves, stems, and flowers are used in botanical medicine.

Historical or traditional use (may or may not be supported by scientific studies): Chickweed was reportedly used at times for food.1 Chickweed enjoys a reputation in folk medicine for treating a wide spectrum of conditions, ranging from asthma and indigestion to skin diseases. Traditional Chinese herbalists used a tea made from chickweed for nosebleeds.

The active constituents in chickweed are largely unknown. It contains relatively high amounts of vitamins and flavonoids, which may explain some of its activity. Although some older information suggests a possible benefit for chickweed in rheumatic conditions, this has not been validated in clinical studies.

Although formerly used as a tea, chickweed is mainly used today as a cream applied liberally several times each day to rashes and inflammatory skin conditions (e.g., eczema) to ease itching and inflammation.  As a tincture, 1–5 ml per day can be taken three times per day. Two teaspoonfuls of the dried herb may be used to make a tea. This may be drunk three times daily.

No side effects with chickweed have been reported.  At the time of writing, there were no well-known drug interactions with chickweed.

      Cleavers:  (Clivers)  A versatile and valuable plant.  One of the most powerful restorative herbs for the lymphatic system, cleavers is beneficial in treating swollen glands, tonsillitis and adnoid problems.  Internally and externally, it is effective in the treatment of many types of inflammations including relieving skin conditions, rashes and burns.  It is a blood purifier and has diuretic qualities.  It is effective in treating urinary tract infections, kidney stones, cystitis and can ease the painful swelling of urinary and reproductive organs.  A decoction or infusion made from fresh Cleavers is said to be useful for sunburn and freckles when applied externally with a soft cloth.

The narrow, lance-shaped leaves look as if they possess whorls of six leaves, but each whorl has only two real leaves.  One may be recognized by having a bud or shoot arising from its axil, the other four are stipules, two belonging to each leaf.  They are about 1/2 inch long and 1/4 inch broad and are arranged in rosettes or whorls, six or eight together, rough all over both margins and surface with prickles pointing backwards. The flowers are two or three together.  They spring from the axils of the leaves and are small and star-like, either white or greenish-white. They are followed by little globular seed-vessels, about 8 inch in diameter, covered with hooked bristles and, like the leaves, stick to whatever they touch. This is how the seeds are dispersed. 

The seeds of Cleavers dried and slightly roasted over a fire have the flavor of coffee.  Brew the whole plant as a decoction and it's more like tea. The plant has no odor and has a bitterish and somewhat astringent taste.

The chemical constituents are chlorophyll, starch, a tannic acid (galitannic acid), citric acid and a rubichloric acid.

Dosage, up to three times per day:  five to ten #0 capsules, or half to one teaspoon of the extract or tincture, or one cup of an infusion.  Externally, apply as needed.

      Coffee:  Coffee combats drowsiness, temporarily boosts athletic performance, eases congestion due to colds and flu, prevents asthma attacks and enhances the pain-relieving effects of aspirin. It is America's most popular herbal beverage. Of course, coffee can also cause problems -- jitters and insomnia. However, the latest research says, "Coffee appears to pose no particular threat in most people if consumed in moderation."

Coffee has been around for a long time. Our word coffee comes from Caffa, the region of Ethiopia where the beans were first discovered. The beverage we know as coffee emerged around A.C.E. 1000, when Arabians began roasting and grinding coffee beans and drinking the hot beverage as we do today. Until the 17th century, Arabia supplied all the world's coffee through the port of Mocha, which became one of coffee's names. Then the Dutch introduced the plant into Java, and the island quickly became synonymous with coffee.

The medically important constituent of coffee is, of course, caffeine, but coffee's caffeine content depends on how it's prepared. A cup of instant contains about 60 milligrams of caffeine whereas drip or percolated coffee has about 100. A cup of espresso contains about 100 milligrams, but this is in a 2 1/2-ounce cup.

Caffeine is addictive. Regular users develop a tolerance and require more to obtain the expected effect. Deprived of caffeine, regular users usually develop withdrawal symptoms, primarily a headache, which can last several days. Coffee is most notorious for causing insomnia and increasing anxiety, irritability and nervousness. It can also aggravate panic attacks. Coffee increases the secretion of stomach acids and can upset the stomach. Doctors say that people with ulcers or other gastrointestinal conditions should use it cautiously, if at all. Contrary to popular mythology, coffee does not cause ulcers. It can, however, make ulcers worse in people who already have them.  Coffee also raises blood pressure in those who are not accustomed to drinking it. But the body adjusts, and normal consumption no longer affects blood pressure.

Coffee has been associated with some bad news.  One of which is heart disease. The subject is extremely controversial, with evidence supporting both sides of the argument. Most studies indicate that coffee can increase cholesterol levels. Decaffeinated coffee has the same cholesterol-boosting effect as regular, suggesting that caffeine is not the culprit. However, filtered coffee doesn't raise cholesterol as much as boiled coffee. It may also increase the risk of heart attack if one consumes more than four cups a day.  There are reports that coffee aggravates premenstrual syndrome in many women.  Coffee has also been accused of contributing to infertility, birth defects, gallstones, immune impairment and many forms of cancer but none of these have been proven. 

If you want to drink coffee, two cups per day is generally what doctors will recommend. 

      Comfrey: (Symphytum officinale)  Common names: Knitbone, boneset. The leaf and root of comfrey have been employed medicinally for centuries. Originally from Europe and western Asia, it is now also grown in North America. 

Comfrey has a long, consistent history of use as a topical agent for improving healing of wounds, skin ulcers, thrombophlebitis, strains, and sprains. Also of note is the use of comfrey to promote more rapid repair of broken bones. Comfrey has a reputation as an anti-inflammatory for a variety of rashes. It was also used for persons with gastrointestinal problems, such as stomach ulcers and inflammatory bowel disease, and for lung problems.

The major compounds found in comfrey that promote healing are mucilage and allantoin.

Fresh, peeled root (approximately 100 grams) or dried root is simmered in 1 pint (250 ml) water for ten to fifteen minutes to prepare comfrey for topical use. Cloth or gauze is soaked in this liquid, then applied to the skin for at least fifteen minutes.  Fresh leaves can be ground up lightly and applied directly to the skin. Creams or ointments made from root or leaf can be applied. All topical preparations should be applied several times per day. To aid the healing of a broken bone, a window would need to be left in the cast near the fracture site, and comfrey applied. However, this is not always possible.

Note:  Root preparations are unsafe for internal use unless they are guaranteed pyrrolizidine-free. Tea made from the leaf can generally be used safely for as long as a month. Tea is made by steeping 1–2 teaspoons of leaf in hot water for fifteen minutes. Three cups per day can be drunk.  2–4 ml of tincture taken three times per day for no more than one month consecutively. Tinctures that are guaranteed pyrrolizidine-free are preferable and can be taken long-term.

      Cranberry:  Cranberries are a traditional part of the Thanksgiving feast in America, where V. macrocarpon is part of the native flora. Recent interest in cranberries, however, goes beyond sauce or relish. 

A traditional women's belief (or old wives' tale) that cranberry juice can be beneficial for urinary tract infections was discounted by doctors until a study was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 1994. Score one for the old wives!  This placebo-controlled, double-blind trial showed that drinking cranberry juice cocktail definitely reduced elderly women's risk of urinary tract infection. Ocean Spray provided both the cranberry juice and the look-alike, taste-alike, cranberry-free placebo juice. 

Cranberries are too tart to be palatable without sweetening, but cranberry juice cocktail products have become quite popular.  Some people concerned about their intake of sugar have turned to dried cranberry capsules, although there are no studies yet to confirm that these are equally as active as juice. 

The part of the plant that is used is the berry.  Cranberries are very rich in anthocyanins. They also contain fructose (fruit sugar) and small amounts of vitamin C and fiber.  Other constituents include catechins and triterpenoids, as well as malic, citric, and quinic acids.  Cranberry also contains an unidentified factor that counteracts bacterial chemicals known as adhesins.

The principal use of cranberry juice is to prevent urinary tract infections. The antiadhesin activity of cranberry juice seems to keep bacteria from getting a foothold in the lining of the urinary tract.  Some women claim that drinking large quantities of cranberry juice at the first symptoms of cystitis can stop an infection. In most instances, though, once an infection has begun and is causing pain and urgent urination, it requires medical treatment.  Cranberry juice has been used infrequently in conjunction with antibiotics to treat chronic kidney inflammation.  Cranberry juice has also been used in nursing homes to keep the urine of incontinent patients from developing an unpleasant ammonia-like smell. Evidently cranberry juice is able to inhibit the growth of the bacteria that degrade urine to ammonia.  Test tube research at the University of Wisconsin suggests that cranberry juice may help keep LDL cholesterol from oxidizing. If confirmed, this activity would help prevent the development of cholesterol plaques in arteries.

The dose used in the double-blind prevention trial mentioned above was 300 ml (approximately 10 fluid ounces) per day. In acute urinary tract infections, up to 32 fluid ounces daily may be consumed.

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